Creatine has long been one of the most researched and debated supplements in sports and health science. Once considered a performance enhancer for elite athletes, it is now being recognized for its broader benefits: supporting brain function, promoting healthy aging, and potentially improving overall energy metabolism.

But what exactly is creatine? Do we truly need supplements, or can diet alone provide enough? Is it safe, and how does it work?

In this article, we’ll explore what science reveals about creatine, distilling it into clear, reliable, evidence-based insights without oversimplifying the science.

1. What Is Creatine?

Creatine is a naturally occurring compound synthesized from three amino acids: arginine, glycine, and methionine. It is produced mainly in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas and then transported through the bloodstream to tissues with high energy demand, especially skeletal muscle, the heart, and the brain. The body's creatine is primarily stored in muscles, but significant amounts are also found in the brain and other organs, where it plays a key role in energy production and muscle growth.

Inside the muscle, creatine is converted into creatine phosphate (also known as phosphocreatine or PCr), an energy reserve that rapidly helps produce ATP, the body’s primary energy currency.

In simple terms, creatine acts like a battery charger: when ATP is depleted during intense effort, creatine phosphate replenishes it almost instantly, helping to produce ATP during high-intensity activity. This allows you to sustain high-intensity activity for a longer period before fatigue sets in.

This process is not only critical for explosive movements such as sprinting or weightlifting but also for maintaining cellular energy homeostasis across various organs, including the brain.

2. The Science Is Clear: Creatine Works

Creatine supplementation remains one of the few ergogenic aids consistently supported by hundreds of peer-reviewed studies. In fact, studies suggest that creatine offers a wide range of athletic benefits, including enhanced athletic performance, increased ability to gain muscle, and improved sports performance. According to a 2025 systematic review, creatine significantly improves both muscular and cognitive performance in healthy adults and can help improve performance during high-intensity activities.

Proven Benefits

• Muscle strength: increases by approximately 5-15%.
• Exercise performance: improves by 10-20% in repeated high-intensity efforts.
• Improving athletic performance: Creatine enhances ATP resynthesis during high-intensity exercise, allowing muscles to sustain performance longer.
• Lean body mass: increases by 1-2 kg, partly due to intracellular water retention but largely from improved training output.
• Increase muscle growth: creatine supplementation helps boost energy stores and cellular processes that promote muscle development, strength, and recovery.
• Muscle protein synthesis: Creatine indirectly supports muscle protein synthesis by enhancing training performance and cellular hydration, which together promote muscle development over time.
• Cognitive support: enhances focus, working memory, and resistance to mental fatigue.

These findings have been replicated across dozens of controlled trials involving athletes, sedentary individuals, and even older adults. Put simply: creatine works, and it works reliably.

3. Beyond Muscles: The Brain Benefits of Creatine

The most exciting recent research shows that creatine doesn’t just power muscles; it also fuels the brain and supports overall brain health. The brain consumes roughly 20% of the body’s total ATP, and when energy levels drop (due to stress, sleep deprivation, or aging), cognitive performance suffers.

Creatine supplementation helps buffer these drops by increasing brain phosphocreatine stores, enhancing energy availability in neurons.

Key Findings

• Improves mental performance during sleep deprivation or intense stress.
• Enhances short-term memory, attention, and processing speed.
• Creatine may support neuroprotection in conditions like traumatic brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, and early-stage Alzheimer’s.

In essence, creatine acts as an energy buffer for both body and mind, making it one of the few supplements that bridge physical and cognitive health.

4. Natural Dietary Sources of Creatine

Creatine is found almost exclusively in animal-based foods. People who eat meat generally have higher natural creatine stores. At the same time, plant-based foods contain negligible amounts, which is why vegetarians and vegans typically have 20–30% lower muscle creatine levels than omnivores.

Creatine Content in Common Foods

However, cooking significantly affects creatine content.
Boiling or stewing can reduce creatine levels by up to 30–40%, while grilling or quick pan-searing helps preserve it.

5. How Much Creatine Do We Need?

The body uses roughly 2 grams of creatine per day. About half of this (about 1 g) is synthesized internally, and the other half should ideally come from the diet.

Keep in mind: To keep your muscle stores “fully saturated,” you need 3–5 grams daily.

To meet that minimum dietary requirement, a person would need to consume about 200-400 grams of meat or fish daily.

6. The Case of Vegetarians and Vegans

Because plant foods lack creatine, vegetarians and vegans generally have lower baseline creatine levels in both muscle and brain tissue.
This deficit may lead to:

• Reduced anaerobic performance capacity,
• Quicker onset of fatigue,
• Slightly lower working memory performance in demanding cognitive tasks.

Fortunately, supplementation completely reverses these deficits. Regular intake of 3–5 g/day of creatine monohydrate restores tissue creatine concentrations to levels seen in omnivores.

For this reason, many experts now classify creatine as a “conditionally essential nutrient,” not mandatory for survival, but crucial for optimal physical and mental function under stress.

7. Is Diet Alone Enough?

For most people, the short answer is no.
Dietary intake typically provides only 0.7–1.0 grams of creatine per day, far below the 3–5 grams required to saturate muscle stores fully.

This means:

• Non-athletes operate with moderate creatine levels, sufficient for daily life but not for peak performance.
• Athletes, older adults, and those under high metabolic stress benefit from supplementation to achieve optimal energy efficiency.

8. Example: Daily Menu and Creatine Intake

However, it’s important to note that these values are based on raw food content. When foods are cooked (especially when boiled or stewed), creatine losses of 20–30% can occur. Therefore, the actual creatine intake from this menu is likely closer to 1.2–1.4 g/day.

Even with regular meat and fish intake, most individuals reach only half the recommended amount for full muscular saturation.

Hence, supplementation effectively bridges that nutritional gap.

9. Supplementation vs. Dietary Intake: A Comparison

Creatine monohydrate, the standard and most researched form, remains the gold standard in terms of safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness.

While dietary creatine intake from meat and fish supports baseline physiological needs, it is often insufficient to achieve full muscle and brain saturation.
Therefore, supplementation can be considered a practical and evidence-based option when dietary intake or endogenous synthesis does not meet physiological demands, such as in athletes, older adults, or individuals following plant-based diets.

In essence, like always, supplementation should be viewed not as a substitute for natural sources but as a complement that helps bridge nutritional gaps when necessary.

10. Safety and Long-Term Use

Creatine is one of the most extensively tested nutritional supplements in history.

Comprehensive reviews, including the International Society of Sports Nutrition’s 2017 position stand and subsequent analyses, encompassing over 500 studies, confirm that creatine is safe for healthy individuals when taken at recommended doses. The International Society of Sports Nutrition has also stated in its official guidelines that creatine supplementation is safe and effective for athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Their sports nutrition position stand, co-authored by leading experts such as Antonio J., provides authoritative recommendations on the use and safety of creatine in sports and exercise.

Common Misconceptions

• “Creatine damages the kidneys.”
  False. No adverse effects have been documented in people with healthy renal function.
• “It causes dehydration or cramps.”
  Only if water intake is insufficient, creatine pulls water into muscle cells, so proper hydration is essential.
• “You need to cycle on and off.”
  There is no evidence supporting cycling; continuous use is safe.

Possible Side Effects

• Temporary weight gain (1–2 kg, from increased intracellular water)
• Mild stomach discomfort (if taken in large single doses)

Overall, creatine’s risk-to-benefit ratio is outstanding, making it one of the safest ergogenic aids available.

Potential Risks and Interactions with Kidney Disease

While creatine supplements are widely recognized as a relatively safe supplement for most healthy individuals, those with pre-existing kidney disease should approach creatine supplementation with caution. The kidneys play a crucial role in filtering waste products from the blood, including creatinine, a byproduct of the body's creatine metabolism. In people with compromised kidney function, taking creatine supplements can potentially increase creatinine levels, which may be detected through a blood test known as a creatinine test.

Elevated creatinine levels can signal reduced kidney function or kidney damage, especially in individuals already at high risk due to kidney disease. For this reason, anyone with a history of kidney problems or concerns about kidney health should consult a healthcare professional before taking creatine or any new supplements. Regular monitoring of kidney function through blood tests and other tests is essential to ensure that creatine supplementation does not negatively impact kidney health. If kidney function declines, it may be necessary to adjust the dosage or stop taking creatine altogether to protect long-term health.

11. How to Take Creatine Properly

Best practice:

1. Take creatine with a carbohydrate-containing meal (e.g., fruit juice) to improve absorption.
2. Stay hydrated (2–3 liters/day).
3. Use pure creatine monohydrate powder; avoid unverified blends or “creatine ethyl ester,” which show inferior stability and absorption.

Loading Phase and Dosage

The loading phase is a popular strategy for those looking to maximize the benefits of creatine monohydrate quickly. During this phase, individuals typically take 20–25 grams of creatine per day, divided into 4–5 smaller doses, for about 5–7 days. This approach rapidly saturates muscle stores with creatine, allowing users to experience improvements in muscle performance and more energy during high-intensity activities sooner.

After the loading phase, a maintenance dose of 3–5 grams per day is sufficient to maintain elevated muscle creatine levels. For those who prefer a gentler approach, skipping the loading phase and simply taking 3–5 grams daily will also increase muscle creatine stores, though it may take a few weeks to reach full saturation.

Staying well-hydrated is especially important during the loading phase, as creatine draws water into muscle cells, which can lead to water retention and, in some cases, mild stomach discomfort. To enhance absorption and minimize digestive issues, consider taking creatine with a meal that includes carbohydrates and protein. This not only supports muscle growth but also helps your body make the most of each dose.

Choosing the Right Creatine Supplement

With so many creatine supplements on the market, finding the best creatine supplement can feel overwhelming. The good news is that creatine monohydrate remains the most researched, effective, and affordable form available. When selecting a creatine supplement, prioritize products that have been independently tested by third-party organizations such as NSF or USP. This ensures the supplement is pure, potent, and free from unwanted contaminants.

Pay attention to the dosage and form. Creatine monohydrate powder is typically the most reliable choice. Some supplements may include additional ingredients like amino acids, beta-alanine, or HMB, which can further support muscle growth and exercise performance. However, it’s important to review these added ingredients and consider your individual goals and sensitivities.

Before starting any new supplement, especially if you have underlying health conditions or are taking other medications, consult with a healthcare professional. This helps ensure that your creatine supplementation is both safe and effective for your unique needs.

12. Who Benefits Most?

• Athletes and gym-goers – Enhanced strength, power, and recovery, especially during intense physical activity.
• Vegetarians and vegans – Restores naturally lower baseline levels.
• Older adults – Helps counteract sarcopenia (age-related muscle loss) and supports muscle performance during physical activity.
• Students and professionals – Supports focus and mental energy.
• Individuals under stress or chronic fatigue – Improves resilience and cellular energy metabolism, aiding those with physically demanding lifestyles or regular physical activity.

Emerging research also points to potential benefits for people with metabolic disorders, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases.

13. Mechanism: What Happens Inside the Cell

At the cellular level, creatine enhances mitochondrial efficiency, the process by which cells produce energy.

By maintaining ATP homeostasis and buffering energy fluctuations, creatine helps cells withstand metabolic stress.

This “energy insurance” effect has far-reaching implications, from supporting muscle contraction to protecting neurons and cardiac cells during oxidative stress.

Stopping Creatine Use

If you decide to stop taking creatine supplements, it’s helpful to know what to expect. When you discontinue creatine supplementation, your muscle creatine levels will gradually return to baseline, which may lead to a slight decrease in muscle mass and strength over time. However, maintaining a consistent resistance training routine and a balanced diet can help minimize muscle loss and support ongoing muscle health.

Some people notice temporary changes such as mild weight gain or water retention when they stop taking creatine, but these effects are usually short-lived as the body adjusts. Importantly, creatine is not addictive, and you can stop taking creatine at any time without experiencing withdrawal symptoms or long-term negative effects.

If you have concerns about stopping creatine use or notice any unusual symptoms, it’s always wise to consult a healthcare professional. They can provide personalized advice and help you make the best decisions for your health, muscle mass, and overall well-being.

Summary: A Small Molecule, a Big Impact

Creatine is not a steroid or an artificial stimulant; it’s a naturally occurring compound that fuels your body and brain.

• Decades of research confirm that creatine supplementation:
• Enhances strength and training capacity,
• Boosts cognitive resilience,
• Supports healthy aging and recovery,
• It is safe for lifelong use.

Most diets simply don’t provide enough creatine to reach optimal cellular saturation.
Supplementation (typically 3–5 grams per day) is an effective, affordable, and evidence-based solution for nearly everyone, from athletes to office workers.

In short, Creatine isn’t just for building muscle.
It helps support energy metabolism, resilience, and healthy aging.

References

1. Tomczyk, M. et al. (2025). From Strength to Cognition: Creatine Across the Lifespan.
2. Kreider, R. et al. (2025). Creatine Supplementation Is Safe, Beneficial Throughout the Lifespan.
3. Xu, J. et al. (2024). Creatine and Cognitive Function: Systematic Review.
4. Ostojic, S. & Forbes, S. (2022). Creatine as a Conditionally Essential Nutrient.
5. Fazio, C. et al. (2022). Alternative Forms of Creatine: Efficacy and Bioavailability.
6. Ostojic, S. (2021). Creatine as a Food Supplement for the General Population.
7. Kreider, R. & Stout, J. (2021). Creatine in Health and Disease.
8. Brosnan, J. & Brosnan, M. (2016). The Role of Dietary Creatine.
9. Jagim, A. et al. (2018). Safety of Creatine Supplementation in Youth.
10. Gualano, B. et al. (2012). Mitochondrial and Systemic Effects of Creatine.
11. Brosnan, J. & Brosnan, M. (2007). Creatine: Endogenous Metabolite, Dietary, and Therapeutic Supplement.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long does it take for creatine to start working?
Creatine begins saturating your muscles within 5–7 days if you follow a loading phase (20 g/day), or about 3–4 weeks with a steady daily intake of 3–5 g. Most people notice improved performance, endurance, or muscle fullness within the first month of consistent use.

Is it better to take creatine before or after a workout?
Research shows minimal differences, but some studies suggest that taking creatine immediately after exercise may improve muscle uptake by increasing blood flow and insulin sensitivity. For convenience, consistency is more important than exact timing; take it at a time you can remember daily.

Can teenagers take creatine safely?
Yes, when used responsibly. According to Jagim et al. (2018), creatine supplementation is safe for adolescents engaged in supervised training, provided they adhere to recommended doses (3–5 g/day). It should not replace proper diet or training guidance.

Does creatine affect sleep?
No direct evidence suggests creatine disrupts sleep. In fact, some studies show that creatine can reduce the effects of sleep deprivation by maintaining brain energy levels. However, avoid mixing it with large amounts of caffeine in the evening, as caffeine (not creatine) can interfere with sleep.

Can creatine cause bloating or stomach discomfort?
Some individuals may experience mild bloating if they consume too much at once. To avoid this, split larger doses into smaller servings throughout the day or take it with food. Using micronized creatine monohydrate can also improve solubility and reduce gastrointestinal discomfort.

Does creatine affect hair loss or testosterone?
There is no conclusive evidence that creatine directly causes hair loss or alters testosterone in a clinically significant way. A small 2009 study reported a rise in DHT (a testosterone derivative) in rugby players, but follow-up studies have not replicated these findings. Creatine is not considered a hormonal supplement.

Is creatine beneficial for endurance athletes?
While creatine is most effective in short, high-intensity efforts, newer research shows it may also aid endurance athletes by modestly enhancing glycogen storage and improving recovery between sessions. Cyclists, runners, and swimmers may benefit when creatine is combined with carbohydrate-rich diets.

Can creatine be combined with other supplements?
Yes. Creatine works well alongside:

• Protein supplements (whey or plant-based): for muscle repair and growth.
• Beta-alanine: for enhanced anaerobic endurance.
• Carbohydrates: for improved creatine uptake.

Avoid stacking creatine with unverified “pre-workout” stimulants or unknown blends.

Does creatine have benefits for older adults?
Absolutely. Studies have shown that older adults taking creatine (3–5 g/day) experience improvements in muscle strength, mobility, and even cognitive resilience. When paired with resistance training, creatine may help slow or reverse age-related muscle loss (sarcopenia).

Can creatine help people with chronic fatigue or depression?
Emerging research suggests potential benefits. Because creatine supports mitochondrial function and brain energy metabolism, it may aid individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome, major depressive disorder, or neurodegenerative diseases. These findings are promising but still under clinical investigation (Tomczyk et al., 2025).

What happens if I stop taking creatine?
If you discontinue supplementation, your muscle creatine stores gradually return to baseline within 4-6 weeks. You may notice a slight reduction in strength or endurance, but there are no withdrawal or health risks associated with stopping.

Is there a best time of day to take creatine?
No strict requirement exists, but taking creatine with meals helps absorption due to insulin’s effect on nutrient transport. Many users prefer taking it after training with a meal or protein shake for convenience.

Does creatine expire or lose potency over time?
Pure creatine monohydrate is chemically stable for several years if kept dry and sealed. Avoid exposing it to moisture or extreme heat, as this can convert it into creatinine, an inactive byproduct.

Can creatine help with injury recovery?
Yes, studies indicate creatine can aid muscle recovery following immobilization or injury. It appears to reduce muscle atrophy during periods of reduced activity and supports faster rehabilitation once movement resumes.

What form of creatine is best?
Creatine monohydrate remains the gold standard. It is the most studied, safest, and most cost-effective form. “Buffered,” “liquid,” or “ethyl ester” versions offer no proven advantage and may be less stable or more expensive (Fazio et al., 2022).

Can creatine be used by people who don’t exercise?
Yes, though the benefits will differ. Creatine supports general energy metabolism and brain health even without training. However, pairing it with physical activity significantly enhances its effects on muscle, strength, and metabolism.

Is creatine vegan-friendly?
While creatine is naturally found in meat and fish, creatine supplements are synthetic and 100% vegan-friendly. This makes supplementation especially valuable for individuals following plant-based diets.

Can I mix creatine with hot drinks or acidic liquids?
You can mix creatine with water, juice, or even warm tea, but avoid prolonged exposure to very hot or acidic liquids (like lemon water), as it may degrade over time. Stir and consume soon after mixing.

Does creatine affect hydration or electrolyte balance?
Creatine increases intracellular water retention, which is beneficial for hydration inside muscle cells. However, because it shifts water into muscle tissue, it’s essential to drink plenty of fluids (2–3 liters/day) to maintain whole-body hydration.

Can creatine be taken while dieting or during fat loss phases?
Yes and it may actually help preserve muscle while losing fat. Creatine maintains training performance and lean mass during caloric restriction, preventing the “flat” appearance sometimes seen in aggressive diets. Combined with proper nutrition and exercise, it supports long-term weight management.